Roman Calendar: Origin, Dates, Months & Seasons

The Roman calendar is a historical marvel that has played a significant role in shaping modern-day calendars. Developed by the Romans more than two thousand years ago, it served as the primary timekeeping system in the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. This calendar laid the foundation for many aspects of our current calendar system and continues to influence our lives today.

In this article, we will explore the Roman calendar, its origins, structure, months, and its connection to the changing seasons. At the end, you’ll also find a list of some of the most important dates in the Roman calendar year.

Origins of the Roman Calendar

The Roman calendar has its roots in the early Roman kingdom, evolving over centuries to meet the practical needs of the society. Its earliest known version, known as the “Roman Republican Calendar,” was believed to have been established by Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome, in the 8th century BC. This early calendar was lunar-based, with 10 months totaling 304 days in a year.

Roman Calendar Months

The early Roman calendar had 10 different months, each with its own distinct history and significance. These months, some of which were renamed in honor of historical figures, laid the foundation for our modern calendar system:

1. Martius (March): Named after Mars, the Roman god of war. Originally the first month, it marked the beginning of the agricultural season.
2. Aprilis (April): Its name’s origin is uncertain, possibly from the Latin word “aperire,” meaning “to open,” signifying the opening of buds and flowers in spring.
3. Maius (May): Named after Maia, a Roman earth goddess associated with growth and fertility.
4. Junius (June): Named after Juno, the Roman goddess of marriage and the well-being of women.
5. Quintilis (July): Originally the fifth month, it was later renamed in honor of Julius Caesar.
6. Sextilis (August): Originally the sixth month, it was renamed in honor of Augustus Caesar.
7. September: Derived from the Latin word “septem,” meaning “seven.”
8. October: Derived from the Latin word “octo,” meaning “eight.”
9. November: Derived from the Latin word “novem,” meaning “nine.”
10. December: Derived from the Latin word “decem,” meaning “ten.”

The Roman calendar later underwent significant reforms, including changes in the number of days and the addition of two more months, January and February, to make a more accurate solar calendar.

The Roman Calendar Structure

The Roman calendar was a lunar calendar at its inception, which means it was based on the moon’s phases. This early calendar had 10 months, totaling 304 days in a year. It did not account for the remaining days, leading to an unaccounted period known as the “intercalary month.”

The intercalary month was added periodically to align the lunar calendar with the solar year. This month, known as “Mercedonius,” had an uncertain length and was inserted by the pontifex maximus (high priest) as needed.

In 45 BC, Julius Caesar introduced the Julian calendar, a significant reform that brought the Roman calendar closer to the modern solar calendar. It established the solar year as approximately 365.25 days and introduced the concept of leap years. This reform included:

1. Adding 67 days to the year 46 BC to bring the calendar in sync with the solar year.
2. Introducing the leap year system, where an extra day (February 29) is added every four years to account for the extra 0.25 days in the solar year.
3. Changing the start of the year from March 1st to January 1st.

The Julian calendar, named after Julius Caesar, was widely adopted throughout the Roman Empire and remained in use for over 1600 years, influencing the development of the Gregorian calendar we have used since 1582.

Roman Calendar Seasons

The Roman calendar was closely tied to the changing seasons, reflecting the importance of agriculture and nature in Roman society. The months of Martius (March), Aprilis (April), Maius (May), and Junius (June) were particularly significant as they marked the transition from winter to spring and the onset of the agricultural season. Festivals and celebrations, such as the festival of Saturnalia in December and the spring fertility festival of Floralia in April, were aligned with these seasonal changes.

Important Dates in the Roman Calendar Year

The Roman calendar, in its various historical forms, had several important dates and festivals that were significant in the life of the Roman people. Here is a list of some of the important dates throughout the Roman calendar year:

1. Kalends (Kalendae): The first day of each month, marked by the announcement of the month’s religious festivals and the payment of debts.
2. Nones (Nonae): The seventh day (or the ninth day in March, May, July, and October) of each month, when certain religious observances and festivals occurred.
3. Ides (Idus): The fifteenth day (or the thirteenth day in March, May, July, and October) of each month, marked by important religious events and lunar phases.
4. Martius (March 15): The Ides of March, famously known for the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC.
5. Aprilis (April 21-23): The festival of Parilia or Palilia, celebrating the founding of Rome, purification, and the beginning of the agricultural season.
6. Maius (May 1): The festival of Beltane, dedicated to the Roman goddess Maia, symbolizing growth and fertility.
7. Junius (June 7): The festival of Vestalia, honoring Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, and the Vestal Virgins who tended to her sacred fire.
8. September 13: Ludi Romani, a series of games and celebrations in honor of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the chief god of the Roman pantheon.
9. October 4-19: Ludi Augustales, games and festivals dedicated to Augustus Caesar.
10. December 17: Saturnalia, a week-long festival celebrating Saturn, characterized by feasting, gift-giving, and social reversal.
11. December 25: Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the “Birthday of the Unconquered Sun,” a festival celebrating the winter solstice and the renewal of the sun’s power.
12. February 15: Lupercalia, an ancient fertility festival involving purification rituals, the sacrifice of goats, and the running of the Luperci.
13. March 17: Festival of Liberalia, celebrating the god Liber (Bacchus) and marking the transition to adulthood for Roman youths.
14. The Roman calendar also had movable festivals and religious observances that depended on lunar or seasonal factors, such as the Equinoxes and Solstices.

These dates offer a glimpse into the rich tapestry of Roman life, with its religious, cultural, and historical celebrations that played a crucial role in shaping the identity and traditions of ancient Rome.

Frequently Asked Questions

Below are some clear-cut answers to some of the most frequently asked questions about the Roman calendar.

Did the Roman calendar have 12 months?

No, initially the Roman calendar had 10 months and a total of 304 days in a year. These months were Martius (March), Aprilis (April), Maius (May), Junius (June), Quintilis (July), Sextilis (August), September, October, November, and December. Over time, the calendar was reformed to include 12 months to better match the solar year.

Why did the Romans add two months?

The Romans added two months, January and February, to address the discrepancy between their lunar calendar and the solar year. This reform was attributed to Julius Caesar in 45 BC when he introduced the Julian calendar. The solar year consists of approximately 365.25 days, while the original Roman lunar calendar was shorter. By adding January and February and adjusting the lengths of some months, the Roman calendar was brought closer to the solar year. This adjustment also included the concept of leap years, ensuring better alignment with the changing seasons.

Is the Roman calendar still used today?

No, the original Roman calendar, as it was in ancient times, is no longer in use today. However, it played a pivotal role in the development of subsequent calendar systems. The Roman calendar evolved into the Julian calendar, which, in turn, served as the foundation for the Gregorian calendar. The Gregorian calendar, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, is the most widely used calendar system globally today. It refined the Julian calendar to account for leap years more accurately and is now the standard calendar used for civil and religious purposes worldwide.

In conclusion, understanding the Roman calendar helps us appreciate the rich history and influence of ancient Rome on our contemporary lives, as well as the enduring legacy of timekeeping systems developed by civilizations of the past.