The Arch of Constantine is an important piece of Roman architecture, as it’s among the most well-preserved monuments in ancient Rome. It’s located right next to the Colosseum along the Via Triumphalis, and was erected to commemorate Emperor Constantine the Great’s victory over Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE). It’s the largest of the triumphal arches in Rome, and blends artistic and cultural elements from multiple periods of Roman art.
In this article, we will take a closer look at the historical context, architecture, inscriptions and artistic elements that make up the Arch of Constantine, as well as the symbolism and propaganda that was communicated through the arch to solidify Constantine’s claim on imperial power.
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Historical Context of the Arch of Constantine
The arch of Constantine was commissioned by the Roman Senate in 315 CE to honor Constantine’s victory. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge is considered a turning point in Roman history, not only because it led to Constantine’s consolidation of power but also due to the legend of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity.
According to tradition, before the battle, Constantine had a vision of the Christian cross and the phrase “In hoc signo vinces” (In this sign, you will conquer). This led him to adopt Christianity and set in motion his policies that eventually established it as the dominant religion of the empire.
The construction of the arch was begun in 312 CE, and it was inaugurated on July 25, 315 CE, the tenth anniversary of Constantine’s reign (his decennalia).
Architectural Overview of the Arch of Constantine
The Arch of Constantine stands about 21 meters (69 feet) high, 25.9 meters (85 feet) wide, and 7.4 meters (24 feet) deep. It is a three-bay arch with a central passage flanked by two smaller side arches.
It was constructed primarily from white Proconnesian marble, with parts made from yellow Numidian marble and other colored stones, a combination typical of late Roman imperial monuments.
Structure
- Central arch: The main passageway is 11.5 meters (38 feet) high and 6.5 meters (21 feet) wide, serving as the focal point of the structure.
- Side arches: The two smaller lateral passages are each 7.4 meters (24 feet) high and 3.4 meters (11 feet) wide.
- Attic: Above the three arches sits the massive attic, which carries an inscription and relief sculptures. The attic is divided into sections and crowned with statues (now lost).
Materials and Construction
The arch was constructed using materials sourced from across the empire.
The use of spolia—architectural elements and sculptures recycled from earlier monuments—is a notable feature. This reflects both the practical concerns of resource reuse and ideological messages about Constantine’s connection to past emperors and Rome’s imperial legacy, which we will have a closer look at in the section on “Artistic and Sculptural Elements”.
Inscription on the Arch of Constantine
The attic of the Arch of Constantine bears a long inscription that celebrates Constantine’s victory and his role as the savior of Rome. The inscription is written in Latin and reads:
IMP. CAES. FL. CONSTANTINO MAXIMO P.F. AUGUSTO S.P.Q.R. QUOD INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS MENTIS MAGNITUDINE CUM EXERCITU SUO TAM DE TYRANNO QUAM DE OMNI EIUS FACTIONE UNO TEMPORE IUSTIS REM PUBLICAM ULTUS EST ARMIS ARCUM TRIUMPHIS INSIGNEM DICAVIT.
This translates to:
“To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantine, the Greatest, Pius, Felix, Augustus: The Senate and the People of Rome (dedicate this arch) because by divine inspiration and his own greatness of mind, with his army, he avenged the State with righteous arms against both the tyrant and all his faction at once.”
The phrase “instinctu divinitatis” (by divine inspiration) is particularly noteworthy because it hints at Constantine’s association with Christianity, without explicitly mentioning it. This inscription reflects the political and religious ambiguity of Constantine’s early reign, as he was balancing the traditional pagan Roman religious practices while gradually embracing Christianity.
Artistic and Sculptural Elements
One of the most striking features of the Arch of Constantine is its mix of sculptures and reliefs, many of which were taken from earlier monuments, particularly those of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. This reuse of spolia, as referred to earlier, serves both practical and symbolic purposes.
Spolia from Earlier Monuments
The arch contains sculptures that were repurposed from previous imperial monuments, thus forging a direct connection between Constantine and the “good emperors” of Rome’s past. Notably:
- Panels from the time of Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE): Eight roundels (medallions) are set on the upper part of the arch. These roundels depict scenes such as hunting, sacrifices, and the emperor engaging in various activities. Although these were originally created for Hadrian, the head of Constantine was re-carved in some places, replacing Hadrian’s image.
- Reliefs from Marcus Aurelius’ reign (161-180 CE): The central passage is adorned with panels showing scenes of battle, victory, and imperial clemency. These were taken from a lost triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius.
- Frieze from Trajan’s Forum: Some of the lower reliefs were extracted from Trajan’s Forum and depict Trajan’s victories in the Dacian Wars (101-106 CE). The scenes of victory were intentionally appropriated to legitimize Constantine’s reign by aligning him with previous successful rulers.
New Sculptures Commissioned for the Arch
While much of the arch’s decoration comes from earlier monuments, some parts were specifically created to commemorate Constantine’s reign:
- The central frieze: The long horizontal frieze on the arch is an original creation of Constantine’s period, depicting his victory over Maxentius. The artistic style is more rigid and hieratic compared to the fluid, naturalistic style of the earlier reliefs. The figures are stiff and frontal, a departure from the classical ideal of realistic representation, reflecting a shift toward the more abstract and symbolic art of late antiquity.
- Victories and River Gods: The arch is adorned with smaller sculptures of winged Victories and river gods, typical symbols in Roman imperial art representing triumph and the natural world.
Symbolism and Propaganda in the Arch of Constantine
In addition to being a monument dedicated to military victory, the Arch of Constantine was also an important piece of imperial propaganda. By reusing sculptures from the reigns of past emperors like Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, Constantine sought to place himself within the tradition of these respected rulers, reinforcing his legitimacy and aligning his reign with Rome’s golden age.
It’s similar to what Augustus did when he built the Temple of Divus Iulius, which was dedicated to his adoptive father Julius Caesar. Notably, during the games Augustus organized to honor Caesar after his death, a comet appeared in the sky and stayed visible for 7 days. This was taken as a sign that Caesar had become a god, and Augustus made sure to allude to this by placing a big comet on the roof of the temple.
The Arch of Constantine also subtly alludes to his embrace of Christianity. Although the inscription doesn’t explicitly mention the Christian God, phrases like “instinctu divinitatis” suggest a divine favor, allowing Constantine to appeal to both pagan and Christian populations.
In this way, he was able to slowly but surely make Christianity a larger part of Roman religion; much like Augustus, who slowly but surely consolidated power under himself and his family, while on the outside it looked like he was only a normal member of the Senate. He never called himself King or Emperor, but simply “first citizen,” and made sure to let other Senators get the opportunity to be consul.
Later History and Preservation of the Arch of Constantine
The Arch of Constantine has survived relatively intact through the centuries, largely due to its symbolic importance and proximity to other significant monuments like the Colosseum.
It has undergone several restorations, particularly during the Renaissance and more recent efforts in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Today, the arch remains one of the most visited and admired monuments in Rome. It’s an amalgamation of styles, periods, and ideologies, reflecting both the continuity of Roman imperial traditions and the transition to a new era under Constantine, the first Christian emperor.